Grazing Effects on The Riparian Vegetation and Human Community Along River Benue, Adamawa State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT This study purposely investigated the grazing effects on riparian vegetation and human communities along river Benue, Adamawa states. The objectives were; i) to determine grazing effects on the plant community; ii) to determine the socio economic effects of grazing along river Benue on human community; and iii) to identify effective management strategies for conservation and sustainability of riparian area along river Benue. The study used cross-sectional and observational survey design. The target population was 550 participants who included: sixtyfive (65) River Basin Development Authority, fifty-five (55) State Environment Management Agency, twelve (12) Non-Governmental Organizations, thirty-six (36) Community Base Organizations and four hundred and thirty (430) local community members. Sample size of 232 was determined using Sloven‘s formula. The data instruments included questionnaires, interview and observation guides. The questionnaires response rate of the study was 96 percent of the contacted respondents. Data was analyzed using inferential techniques, frequency and percentage distribution. Tables and graphs were used to present the data. Study revealed that grazing has significant effect on the riparian plant species community with decrease in species growth, decrease in palatable native species diversity, decrease in plant productivity of the riparian, decrease in species composition, increase in exotic species diversity, increase in native unpalatable plant species. furthermore, the study found that there was increase in plant extinction, increase in plant diebark and decrease in the vigor and resilience status of plant species along river Benue. Again the study found out that there was variation in plant species density between the grazed and ungrazed sites and also, a slight difference on the species attributes amidst the upper and lower riparian. The study indicated a very strong positive socioeconomic effect of grazing along river Benue. including insecurity, destruction of water sources, poor quality of life (poor health quality), increase in communicable diseases e.g. Epidemic Cholera, hepatitis and typhoid, poor sanitation, limited access to safe and quality water. Furthermore, the study revealed the destruction of habitat and decrease in fish productivity decrease in wild foods (fruits/vegetable e.g. cashew nuts, hackberries) and medicinal plants e.g. combretum nigrican and lamiaceae; decrease in the navigability level of riparian water; destruction or upsetting of riparian educational potential (53 percent). The study revealed that the most effective management strategies for this riparian area included but limited to: fencing strategy, alternative watering point strategy, and using shade and shelter grazing strategy. Considering the fact that degraded riparian environments demand innovative and pragmatic approaches to restoration and significant of the effects of grazing in riparian area along river Benue, and the need for sustainable vegetation cover and economic activities, the study recommends that the Government of Adamawa State together with Federal Government should strengthens grazing related policies promoting awareness of the negative effects of traditional grazing and ensuring the adoption of best grazing management practices such as tree planting and establishing Grass reserves, specific watering points e.g. ground tanks within pastures, planting palatable forage species e.g. on depleted upland areas, programing prescribed burning as a vegetation treatment improvement, system improving Stockmanship through traing , engineering interventions for invasive species e.g. Cenhrus cilliaris. Herd management and animal husbandry practices of cows Sheep and goats, Supplementation of feeds Culling and fencing techniques

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

APPROVAL ................................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION...............................................................................................................................iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................. iv

LISTS OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF PLATES ....................................................................................................................... xiii

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................. xiv

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the study ........................................................................................................... 1

1.1.1 Historical perspective............................................................................................................. 3

1.1.2 Theoretical perspective .......................................................................................................... 4

1.1.3 Conceptual perspective .......................................................................................................... 5

1.1.4 Contextual perspective........................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Problem statement..................................................................................................................... 8

1.3 General objectives..................................................................................................................... 9

1.4 Research hypothesis................................................................................................................ 10

1.5 Justification of the study ......................................................................................................... 10

1.6 Operational definition of terms............................................................................................... 10

1.7 Scope of the study................................................................................................................... 11

1.7.1 Geographical scope.............................................................................................................. 11

1.7.2 Theoretical scope ................................................................................................................. 11

1.7.3 Content scope....................................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 13

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 13

2.1 Theoretical review .................................................................................................................. 13

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2.2 Conceptual framework............................................................................................................ 17

2.3 Related studies........................................................................................................................ 18

2.3.1 The riparian zone ................................................................................................................. 18

2.4 Functions of riparian vegetation ............................................................................................. 19

2.4.1 Pollution, sediment and nutrient trapping............................................................................ 19

2.4.2 Channel stability .................................................................................................................. 19

2.4.3 Riparian ecosystems............................................................................................................. 20

2.4.4 Habitat provision and corridors ........................................................................................... 20

2.4.5 Flood control........................................................................................................................ 21

2.4.6 Economic values.................................................................................................................. 21

2.4.7 Recreational and aesthetic values ........................................................................................ 21

2.4.8 Spiritual values..................................................................................................................... 22

2.5 Characteristics of livestock species that potentially affect riparian vegetation ...................... 22

2.5.1 Cattle.................................................................................................................................... 23

2.5.2 Sheep.................................................................................................................................... 23

2.5.3 Goats.................................................................................................................................... 24

2.6 Grazing practices that affect riparian vegetation use.............................................................. 25

2.6.1 Grazing intensity.................................................................................................................. 25

2.6.2 Seasonal use ......................................................................................................................... 26

2.6.3 Alternative water sources..................................................................................................... 27

2.7 The Grazing effects on the riparian vegetation....................................................................... 29

2.7.1 Defoliation ........................................................................................................................... 32

2.7.1.1 Reduced vigor, biomass.................................................................................................... 32

2.7.1.2 Reduced vegetation cover................................................................................................. 32

2.7.2 Animal traffic....................................................................................................................... 35

2.7.2.1 Trampling (soil compaction)............................................................................................. 35

2.7.2.2 Herbage removal............................................................................................................... 37

2.8 The socio-economic effects of grazing along the riparian area .............................................. 39

2.8.1 The role of policy on livestock grazing and environmental in Nigeria ............................... 41

2.9 Effective management strategies for conservation and sustainability of riparian areas......... 46

2.91 Techniques that pull livestock away from riparian areas...................................................... 48

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2.9.1.1 Offsite water developments .............................................................................................. 48

2.9.1.2 Upland seeding.................................................................................................................. 49

2.9.1.3 Prescribed burning as vegetation treatment ...................................................................... 49

2.9.1.4 Grass reserves ................................................................................................................... 50

2.9.1.5 Supplementation/ placement as a livestock distribution tool............................................ 50

2.9.2 Herd management and animal husbandry practices............................................................. 52

2.9.2.1 Culling practices ............................................................................................................... 52

2.9.2.2 Kind of livestock............................................................................................................... 53

2.9.2.3 Breed of livestock ............................................................................................................. 55

2.9.3.1 Fences ............................................................................................................................... 55

2.9.3.2 Stockmanship.................................................................................................................... 56

2.10 Empirical studies................................................................................................................... 58

2.11 Gaps of the study .................................................................................................................. 62

CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................... 64

METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 64

3.0. Study area............................................................................................................................... 64

3.1. The study population.............................................................................................................. 65

3.2. Sample size ............................................................................................................................ 65

3.3. Sampling technique................................................................................................................ 66

3.4. Data collection method .......................................................................................................... 68

3.4.1 Survey .................................................................................................................................. 68

3.4.2 Field observation.................................................................................................................. 69

3.5 Research instruments.............................................................................................................. 70

3.5.1 Questionnaire guide ............................................................................................................. 70

3.5.2 Observation guide ................................................................................................................ 71

3.6 Validity and Reliability........................................................................................................... 71

3.6.1 Validity ................................................................................................................................ 71

3.6.2 Reliability............................................................................................................................. 72

3.7. Data collection procedure ...................................................................................................... 74

3.8. Data analysis.......................................................................................................................... 75

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3.9. Ethical consideration.............................................................................................................. 75

3.10. Limitation of the study......................................................................................................... 76

CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................... 77

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS....................................................................................................... 77

4.0 Response rate .......................................................................................................................... 77

4. 1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents.................................................................... 78

4. 2 The grazing effects on vegetation of riparian area along river Benue................................... 80

4. 2. 1 Variation in grazing effects amidst upper and lower riparian sections.............................. 84

4. 2. 2 Observation of vegetation density of the riparian sections................................................ 87

4.2.3 Comparison of Palatable and Non-Palatable Grass Cover .................................................. 90

4. 3. Socio-economic effect of grazing on the human community along the riparian area .......... 95

4.3.1 The socio-econmic effect of grazing on the communities along riparian area .................... 95

4.3.2 Differences in social effects of grazing amidst the communities........................................ 97

4. 4 The economic effect of grazing on the community along the riparian area of river Benue 100

4.4.1 Differences in the economic effects of grazing amidst the communities.......................... 103

4.5 Effective management strategies for vegetation conservation and sustainability in the riparian

..................................................................................................................................................... 111

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 114

DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................... 114

5.0 Discussions ........................................................................................................................... 114

5.1. The grazing effects on vegetation of riparian area............................................................... 114

5.2. The socio- economic effects of grazing along the riparian area .......................................... 119

5.2.1 The socioeconomic effects of grazing along the riparian area .......................................... 119

5.3. Effective management strategies for conservation and sustainability of the riparian area.. 121

5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 126

5.5 Contribution to knowledge ................................................................................................... 127

5.6 Recommendations................................................................................................................. 127

5.7 Areas for further research ..................................................................................................... 129

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................... 131

APPENDIX I: ............................................................................................................................. 150

APPENDIX II:............................................................................................................................ 154

APPENDIX III:........................................................................................................................... 158

APPENDIX IV: .......................................................................................................................... 162

APPENDIX V:............................................................................................................................ 166

APPENDIX VI: .......................................................................................................................... 170

APPENDIX VII: ......................................................................................................................... 173

APPENDIC VIII:........................................................................................................................ 176

APPENDIX IX: .......................................................................................................................... 177

APPENDIX X:............................................................................................................................ 181

APPENDIX XI: .......................................................................................................................... 182